Corneal Abrasion / Ulcer

Corneal abrasion and ulcer represent injuries to the cornea, the transparent outer layer of the eye that serves as the primary protective barrier and refractive surface for vision. A corneal abrasion refers to a superficial scratch or erosion affecting only the outermost epithelial layer, while a corneal ulcer indicates a deeper wound that penetrates into the underlying stromal tissue. These conditions are among the most common ocular emergencies encountered in small mammal medicine and require prompt attention to prevent permanent vision impairment or loss of the eye.

Small mammals across all species are susceptible to corneal injuries, though those with naturally prominent or protruding eyes face elevated risk. Hamsters, particularly Syrian hamsters with their large, bulging eyes, frequently present with corneal damage. Rats and mice, hedgehogs, and sugar gliders also commonly develop these injuries due to their eye anatomy and active behaviors. The prevalence is significant enough that exotic veterinarians encounter corneal conditions regularly in small mammal practice, making owner awareness of signs and appropriate response essential.

The impact of corneal abrasions and ulcers on a small mammal's health extends beyond the eye itself. Pain from these injuries causes significant distress, leading to decreased appetite, reduced activity, and behavioral changes that affect overall wellbeing. The eye's exposure and the animal's natural instinct to rub or scratch at the affected area can rapidly worsen the initial injury. Additionally, the compromised corneal surface becomes vulnerable to secondary bacterial or fungal infections, which can progress to sight-threatening or even life-threatening complications if the infection spreads.

With appropriate and timely treatment from a veterinarian experienced in exotic small mammal medicine, most corneal abrasions heal completely within days to weeks depending on depth. Even deeper ulcers can often be successfully managed, though they require more intensive therapy and carry greater risk of complications. Early detection dramatically improves outcomes, yet because small mammals instinctively hide signs of illness and injury, owners must remain vigilant for subtle indicators. Any suspected eye abnormality warrants immediate veterinary evaluation, as delays of even a day or two can mean the difference between full recovery and permanent damage.

Traumatic injury represents the most frequent cause of corneal abrasions and ulcers in small mammals. Sharp bedding materials such as wood shavings, hay stalks, or straw pieces can scratch the delicate corneal surface during normal burrowing and nesting behaviors. Cage accessories with rough edges, wire mesh flooring, and protruding hardware create ongoing hazards. Inappropriate substrates like cedar or pine shavings not only risk physical trauma but contain aromatic oils that chemically irritate ocular tissues. Inter-animal aggression during housing conflicts or rough play frequently results in corneal scratches from teeth or claws, making proper socialization and adequate space critical considerations.

Species-specific risk factors significantly influence corneal injury susceptibility. Hamsters possess naturally prominent, protruding eyes with limited blink reflexes, leaving the corneal surface exposed and vulnerable. Their burrowing instincts through bedding compound this anatomical predisposition. Hedgehogs curl into protective balls when threatened, and their own spines can traumatize their eyes during this defensive posture. Sugar gliders' large eyes adapted for nocturnal vision face injury risk during their characteristic gliding and climbing activities. Rats and mice, while having less prominent eyes, engage in extensive exploratory behaviors that bring them into contact with potentially harmful cage contents.

Environmental and husbandry factors play substantial roles in corneal injury development. Dusty bedding materials, including certain paper-based products and particularly dusty hay, cause chronic irritation that weakens the corneal epithelium over time. Inadequate humidity, especially problematic for chinchillas who require moderate levels, leads to corneal drying and increased fragility. Poor cage ventilation allows ammonia from urine to accumulate, creating chemical irritation of the eyes. Improper lighting, either excessive or improperly positioned, can contribute to chronic corneal stress. Temperature extremes also affect tear production and corneal health.

Dietary deficiencies may predispose small mammals to corneal problems by compromising the eye's natural protective mechanisms. Vitamin A deficiency weakens epithelial tissues throughout the body, including the corneal surface, making it more susceptible to injury and slower to heal. Inadequate protein intake affects tissue repair capabilities. Dehydration, common in small mammals fed primarily dry diets without adequate water access, reduces tear production and corneal lubrication. Species-specific nutritional requirements mean that inappropriate diets create various deficiency states that indirectly impact ocular health.

The pathophysiology of corneal injury progression explains why prompt treatment matters so critically. When the corneal epithelium sustains damage, the underlying stroma becomes exposed to environmental pathogens. Bacteria naturally present in the conjunctival sac, including Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Pseudomonas species, can colonize the wound site and begin enzymatic degradation of the corneal tissue. This collagenase activity causes rapid deepening and widening of the ulcer, potentially leading to corneal perforation within twenty-four to forty-eight hours in severe cases. The small mammal's limited immune response to localized infections and high metabolic rate mean this progression occurs faster than in larger animals, underscoring the emergency nature of corneal ulcers.

Early warning signs of corneal injury often manifest as subtle behavioral changes that precede obvious physical symptoms. Small mammal owners may notice their pet becoming less active than usual, spending more time hiding, or showing reduced interest in food and treats. The affected animal frequently holds the injured eye partially or fully closed, a protective response called blepharospasm. Head tilting toward the unaffected side, reluctance to emerge from hiding spots, and decreased grooming behavior all suggest ocular discomfort. Because prey animals instinctively conceal vulnerability, these early indicators may be the only clues before more apparent symptoms develop.

Visible ocular symptoms become increasingly evident as the condition progresses or when the initial injury is significant. Excessive tearing, called epiphora, causes wetness around the affected eye and may stain the surrounding fur. The eye may appear cloudy or hazy due to corneal edema, the swelling response to injury. Redness of the conjunctival tissues surrounding the eye indicates inflammation. A visible defect on the corneal surface may appear as a dull, irregular area when light reflects differently from the damaged tissue. Discharge that progresses from clear and watery to thick, colored, or purulent suggests secondary bacterial infection requiring immediate attention.

Behavioral changes associated with corneal pain significantly impact the animal's daily functioning. Affected small mammals typically reduce their food and water intake, creating risks of dehydration and hepatic lipidosis in species prone to this metabolic crisis. Normal activities like running on wheels, climbing, or exploring diminish noticeably. Social species may withdraw from cage mates or, conversely, become irritable and aggressive when approached. Excessive face rubbing using paws or against cage surfaces represents an attempt to relieve discomfort but often worsens the injury. Vocalization when the eye area is touched or during handling indicates significant pain.

Physical signs accompanying corneal injury extend beyond the eye itself. Weight loss develops quickly in small mammals that reduce eating, and their high metabolic rates mean even brief anorexia creates measurable changes. The coat may appear dull or unkempt due to decreased grooming. Hunched posture and reluctance to move reflect overall malaise. Swelling of the eyelids or tissues surrounding the eye socket suggests significant inflammation or infection spread. In severe cases involving corneal perforation, the eye may appear distorted, sunken, or have visible contents prolapsing through the wound.

Symptom progression follows a predictable timeline when treatment is delayed. Initial discomfort and mild clouding within the first twelve to twenty-four hours progress to obvious pain behaviors and visible ulceration by forty-eight hours. Between two to five days, untreated ulcers typically show significant deepening, increased purulent discharge, and potential development of a hypopyon—visible pus accumulation inside the eye's anterior chamber. Beyond five to seven days, corneal perforation becomes increasingly likely, with catastrophic consequences including loss of intraocular contents, severe infection, and potential need for eye removal.

Emergency symptoms requiring immediate veterinary intervention include any sudden change in eye appearance or behavior suggesting pain, obvious cloudiness or color change to the cornea, discharge that becomes yellow, green, or bloody, swelling of the eye or surrounding tissues, apparent change in eye size or shape, visible damage to the eye surface, or the animal holding the eye completely closed and resisting any examination. Because small mammals deteriorate rapidly and corneal ulcers can perforate within hours once certain bacteria establish infection, any suspected eye problem should be treated as urgent. Waiting to see if symptoms improve is never appropriate with ocular conditions in these species.

Physical examination by a veterinarian experienced in exotic small mammal medicine forms the foundation of corneal injury diagnosis. The veterinarian assesses the animal's overall condition, noting body weight, hydration status, and any signs of systemic illness that might contribute to or result from the eye problem. Careful observation of both eyes allows comparison between affected and normal sides. Using magnification and proper lighting, the veterinarian examines the corneal surface for irregularities, measures the approximate size and depth of any defect, and evaluates surrounding structures including the conjunctiva, eyelids, and visible portions of the inner eye. This examination must balance thoroughness with the stress limitations inherent to small prey animals.

Fluorescein staining represents the essential diagnostic test for corneal abrasions and ulcers. This orange dye, applied as drops to the eye surface, adheres to exposed corneal stroma but not intact epithelium. When examined under blue light, damaged areas fluoresce bright green, clearly delineating the extent and location of corneal defects. This test confirms the presence of epithelial disruption, distinguishes superficial abrasions from deeper ulcers based on staining pattern, and provides a baseline for monitoring healing with subsequent examinations. The procedure causes minimal additional stress and yields immediately interpretable results, making it invaluable in small mammal ophthalmic assessment.

Additional diagnostic procedures may be indicated depending on initial findings and clinical presentation. Tonometry to measure intraocular pressure helps rule out glaucoma, which can occur secondary to severe ulceration or independently cause similar symptoms. Cytology samples collected from the corneal surface or discharge identify bacterial types and guide antibiotic selection, particularly important when infection is suspected. Culture and sensitivity testing provides definitive pathogen identification and antibiotic susceptibility information for cases not responding to initial therapy. Examination of the deeper eye structures using specialized equipment may be possible in cooperative patients to assess for internal complications.

Differential diagnosis for corneal injury symptoms encompasses several other conditions requiring different treatment approaches. Conjunctivitis presents with similar redness and discharge but typically lacks the pain response and corneal changes seen with ulcers. Glaucoma causes clouding and enlarged appearance but involves elevated intraocular pressure rather than surface damage. Uveitis, or inflammation inside the eye, may accompany corneal ulcers but also occurs independently. Cataracts affect deeper structures and develop gradually rather than acutely. Foreign bodies retained on or beneath the corneal surface require removal in addition to ulcer treatment. Proptosis, or forward displacement of the entire eye, represents a distinct emergency. The exotic veterinarian's expertise ensures accurate differentiation and appropriate treatment planning.

Emergency and immediate treatment priorities focus on preventing further damage and establishing pain control. The veterinarian typically applies topical anesthetic drops to allow thorough examination and sample collection without causing additional trauma from the animal's resistance. If foreign material is present on or embedded in the cornea, careful removal under magnification prevents ongoing irritation. An Elizabethan collar or alternative protective device appropriate for the species prevents self-trauma from rubbing, though these must be sized correctly to avoid neck injuries or feeding difficulties in small mammals. Initial topical antibiotic application begins immediately to prevent or treat bacterial colonization.

Medical management centers on topical ophthalmic medications carefully selected for safety in the specific small mammal species. Broad-spectrum antibiotic drops or ointments form the cornerstone of treatment, with common choices including fluoroquinolones, triple antibiotic combinations, or chloramphenicol depending on suspected pathogens and species considerations. Treatment frequency typically starts intensive, often every four to six hours, before tapering as healing progresses. Atropine drops may be prescribed to dilate the pupil and reduce painful ciliary spasm, though systemic effects must be monitored in small patients. Oral pain medications, usually non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or opioids appropriate for the species, address discomfort that topical anesthetics cannot safely provide long-term.

Surgical intervention becomes necessary for deep or rapidly progressing ulcers that fail to respond to medical therapy. Debridement procedures remove loose, devitalized epithelium that impedes healing. Grid keratotomy, creating a crosshatch pattern of superficial scratches, may stimulate healing in chronic non-healing ulcers. Conjunctival grafts harvest healthy tissue from the pink tissue surrounding the eye to cover and protect deep corneal defects. Third eyelid flaps, when anatomically possible in the species, provide temporary coverage allowing healing beneath. In cases of corneal perforation or globe rupture where the eye cannot be saved, enucleation—surgical removal of the eye—may be necessary to prevent suffering and systemic infection spread.

Supportive care measures critically influence treatment success in small mammals. Maintaining appropriate environmental temperature prevents metabolic energy diversion from healing. Assisted feeding using species-appropriate critical care formulas ensures adequate nutrition when pain reduces voluntary eating. Subcutaneous fluid administration corrects and prevents dehydration. Housing modifications minimize stress, including isolation from aggressive cage mates, reduced lighting levels, and placement in quiet locations. The small mammal's rapid metabolism means supportive care deficiencies quickly become life-threatening, making these interventions as important as specific ocular treatments.

Species-specific treatment considerations influence medication choices and treatment protocols. Ferrets tolerate most standard veterinary ophthalmic preparations well, while chinchillas require careful attention to any moisture introduced near their eyes and specialized dust-free environments during healing. Hamsters' prominent eyes need particular protection from self-trauma, and their stress sensitivity affects handling frequency decisions. Sugar gliders' unique physiology requires dose adjustments for systemic medications. Hedgehogs' tendency to ball defensively complicates medication administration. The exotic veterinarian's familiarity with these nuances ensures treatment protocols optimize healing while minimizing harm.

Treatment challenges specific to small mammals require creative solutions from experienced practitioners. The small size of these patients makes accurate medication dosing critical, as therapeutic windows are narrow. Compounding pharmacies often prepare appropriately concentrated or diluted preparations. Administering eye drops multiple times daily to fractious, painful small mammals demands technique and patience, and veterinary staff typically demonstrate proper restraint and administration methods. Some owners cannot safely or frequently enough medicate their pets, necessitating hospitalization. The stress of repeated handling must be balanced against treatment requirements, sometimes requiring modified protocols that sacrifice ideal frequency for improved patient welfare.

Recovery timeline varies substantially based on injury severity and treatment promptness. Superficial corneal abrasions affecting only the epithelial layer typically heal within three to seven days with appropriate treatment, as the corneal epithelium has remarkable regenerative capacity. Deeper ulcers involving the stroma require two to four weeks for resolution, and healing may leave some degree of permanent scarring affecting vision. Complicated cases involving infection, extensive tissue loss, or surgical intervention may require six weeks or longer to fully stabilize. Throughout this period, regular recheck examinations with fluorescein staining monitor healing progress and guide treatment adjustments.

Post-treatment care and monitoring responsibilities fall primarily to owners once the patient is stable enough for home management. Medication administration must continue for the full prescribed duration even when the eye appears improved, as premature discontinuation risks recurrence. The protective collar or device must remain in place until the veterinarian confirms complete healing. Activity restriction, while challenging in naturally active small mammals, prevents re-injury during the vulnerable healing period. Daily observation for signs of improvement or deterioration guides whether scheduled rechecks remain appropriate or emergency evaluation is needed. The veterinary team remains available for questions and concerns throughout recovery.

Prognostic factors influencing outcome include ulcer depth and size at presentation, presence and type of secondary infection, time elapsed before treatment initiation, patient's overall health status, and owner's ability to administer prescribed treatments. Superficial injuries in otherwise healthy animals receiving prompt appropriate care carry excellent prognosis for full recovery. Deep or melting ulcers, those with aggressive bacterial infection, or cases presenting late in the disease course have guarded to poor prognosis for vision preservation though the eye and patient can often be saved. Species-specific healing capacity also influences outcomes, with some species demonstrating more robust corneal repair than others.

Long-term outlook and quality of life for small mammals surviving corneal injury depends on residual damage. Many patients recover completely with no lasting effects on vision or comfort. Others develop corneal scarring visible as a permanent white opacity that may minimally affect vision depending on location and density. Some degree of corneal irregularity can persist, potentially causing chronic mild irritation managed with periodic lubrication. Animals requiring enucleation adapt remarkably well to monocular vision, maintaining normal quality of life for their remaining lifespan. Owners should understand that while corneal injuries are serious, most small mammals return to happy, comfortable lives with appropriate treatment.

Husbandry prevention forms the primary defense against corneal injuries in small mammals. Bedding selection should prioritize soft, dust-free materials appropriate for the species—paper-based products, fleece liners, or appropriately processed natural substrates. Hay provided for dietary needs should be sorted to remove sharp stalks or offered in racks that minimize face-level contact. Regular inspection of all cage accessories for rough edges, broken pieces, or protruding wires prevents trauma from environmental hazards. Cage placement away from areas where objects might fall or poke through bars adds another safety layer. Complete cage cleaning at appropriate intervals removes accumulated irritants while maintaining beneficial environmental bacteria.

Dietary prevention supports ocular health through proper nutrition. Species-appropriate diets providing adequate vitamin A maintain healthy epithelial tissues including the corneal surface. Fresh water constantly available in clean, functional dispensers prevents dehydration that compromises tear production. The balance of moisture in the diet through fresh vegetables for appropriate species maintains systemic hydration. Avoiding nutritional excesses and deficiencies through researched, balanced feeding supports overall health that indirectly protects ocular tissues. Consultation with an exotic veterinarian can clarify specific dietary requirements for each species.

Stress reduction decreases corneal injury risk through several mechanisms. Stressed small mammals may exhibit abnormal behaviors including increased face rubbing and environmental interaction that creates injury opportunities. Chronic stress compromises immune function, slowing healing if injury occurs and increasing infection risk. Appropriate cage sizing, proper socialization matching species needs, minimal unnecessary handling, consistent routines, and environmental enrichment all reduce stress levels. Recognizing and addressing sources of stress before they contribute to health problems represents responsible small mammal husbandry.

Regular health monitoring enables early detection of developing eye problems before they become emergencies. Brief daily observation of each eye for clarity, discharge, and symmetry takes only moments but catches early abnormalities. Noting behavioral changes such as decreased activity, reduced appetite, or increased hiding prompts closer examination. Familiarity with each individual animal's normal appearance and behavior makes deviations more apparent. Training small mammals to tolerate gentle handling facilitates home examination and veterinary visits. Keeping a log of observations provides valuable information for veterinary consultations.

Veterinary check-ups with practitioners experienced in exotic small mammal medicine provide professional health assessment beyond home monitoring capabilities. Annual wellness examinations allow thorough evaluation including ocular examination with magnification not available at home. These visits establish baseline health records for comparison if problems develop. Discussing husbandry practices with the veterinary team identifies potential risk factors before they cause harm. Building a relationship with an exotic veterinarian ensures access to appropriate care when emergencies occur, eliminating delays searching for qualified help during crises. Investment in preventive care typically costs less than treating advanced disease while providing better outcomes.

Ongoing daily care requirements for small mammals recovering from or prone to corneal issues integrate seamlessly into routine husbandry with modest modifications. Morning and evening health checks should include brief bilateral eye examination, looking for discharge, cloudiness, or asymmetry. Keeping the face area clean by gently wiping any accumulated discharge with warm, moistened gauze prevents crusting that could irritate healing tissues. Maintaining optimal humidity levels for the species reduces corneal drying—this is particularly important for chinchillas requiring moderate humidity and rats prone to respiratory issues in overly dry environments. Documentation of observations in a simple log aids pattern recognition and provides valuable information for veterinary consultations.

Environmental management reduces ongoing corneal injury risk while supporting general health. Bedding changes at appropriate frequency—typically one to two times weekly for most species—remove accumulated dust, ammonia, and potential irritants. Dust baths for chinchillas should use high-quality, appropriately fine dust and be offered for limited duration to minimize ocular exposure. Cage positioning away from direct sunlight, heating vents, and air conditioning drafts prevents temperature extremes and drying air currents. Air purification in the room housing small mammals reduces airborne irritants. Regular assessment of all cage components for developing hazards catches problems before injuries occur.

Monitoring health indicators beyond the eyes provides a complete picture of the animal's wellbeing that influences ocular health. Daily weight monitoring using a gram-accurate scale detects subtle losses that might indicate developing illness before other symptoms appear. Food and water consumption tracking reveals appetite changes suggesting discomfort or disease. Activity level observation notes changes in normal patterns. Fecal and urine output monitoring identifies digestive or urinary abnormalities. Behavioral documentation including social interactions, sleeping patterns, and interest in enrichment creates a comprehensive health profile enabling rapid detection of any emerging issues.

Quality of life considerations guide management decisions for animals with chronic ocular issues or residual damage from previous injuries. Animals with permanent vision impairment may benefit from minimal cage rearrangement to maintain spatial familiarity. Those with chronic mild irritation requiring long-term lubricant application need owners committed to ongoing treatment. Decisions about housing, activities, and medical interventions should prioritize the animal's comfort and ability to engage in natural behaviors. Regular reassessment ensures management approaches remain appropriate as the animal ages or conditions evolve. Honest evaluation of quality of life, ideally with veterinary input, guides difficult decisions when needed.

Caregiver support and resources help owners successfully manage small mammals with ocular conditions. Online communities dedicated to specific species provide peer support and practical advice from experienced keepers, though veterinary guidance should supersede anecdotal recommendations. Educational resources from reputable exotic animal organizations deepen understanding of species-specific needs. Exotic veterinarians and veterinary technicians serve as ongoing consultants for husbandry questions. Financial planning for potential emergency care reduces stress when treatment is needed. Recognizing caregiver fatigue is important—managing chronic conditions in pets requires sustained effort, and seeking support or respite when needed maintains both owner and animal wellbeing.

High-risk species for corneal abrasions and ulcers share anatomical features that increase vulnerability. Hamsters, particularly Syrian hamsters, face elevated risk due to their prominently protruding eyes with limited orbital protection and reduced blink reflexes. Their active burrowing behavior through bedding materials creates constant exposure to potential corneal scratches. Hedgehogs' unique defensive curling behavior brings their own spines into contact with their eyes, and their small eyes are difficult to examine without anesthesia, often delaying diagnosis. Rats with porphyrin-staining tears from respiratory infections may develop secondary corneal irritation and ulceration. Sugar gliders' large eyes adapted for nocturnal vision face injury risk during their characteristically active climbing and gliding behaviors.

Age, sex, and genetic predispositions influence corneal injury susceptibility within species. Younger small mammals exploring their environments may encounter hazards at higher rates than settled adults. Geriatric animals with compromised immune function heal more slowly if injuries occur and face higher infection risk. Males housed together may sustain eye injuries during territorial disputes, particularly in species with strong dominance hierarchies. Certain genetic lines within species may possess more prominent eyes or other conformational features increasing vulnerability. Dwarf hamster varieties and specific rat strains show varying eye prominence that affects risk level. Animals with previous ocular injury face elevated risk for recurrence.

Species-specific susceptibilities extend beyond anatomy to behavioral and physiological factors. Chinchillas' requirement for dust baths creates regular fine particle exposure that can irritate eyes, requiring high-quality, appropriately fine dust and limited bath duration. Ferrets' playful nature and tendency to squeeze through tight spaces creates trauma opportunities, though their recessed eyes provide some protection. Gerbils' desert adaptations include minimal tear production, making any corneal injury slower to heal. Degus share chinchilla-like susceptibilities given their similar origins and care requirements. Understanding each species' unique risk profile allows targeted prevention strategies, and owners should discuss species-specific concerns with exotic veterinarians familiar with their particular pets.

Commonly co-occurring conditions with corneal abrasions and ulcers reflect shared causes and complications. Conjunctivitis—inflammation of the pink tissue surrounding the eye—frequently accompanies corneal injuries as the inflammatory response extends beyond the cornea. Blepharitis, or eyelid inflammation, may result from the same irritant causing corneal damage or develop secondary to discharge accumulation. Upper respiratory infections in rats often precede ocular problems due to porphyrin discharge and rubbing. Dental disease causing facial pain may lead to increased face rubbing with subsequent corneal trauma. Identifying and treating co-occurring conditions optimizes overall outcome.

Conditions with similar symptoms require differentiation for appropriate treatment. Glaucoma presents with corneal cloudiness and eye pain but involves elevated intraocular pressure requiring different therapeutic approaches; untreated glaucoma causes permanent vision loss through optic nerve damage. Cataracts cause cloudiness but affect the lens inside the eye rather than the surface, developing gradually rather than acutely and not causing the acute pain associated with ulcers. Uveitis—inflammation inside the eye—may accompany corneal ulcers but also occurs independently and requires anti-inflammatory treatment. Proptosis, forward displacement of the entire eye from the socket, constitutes a distinct emergency requiring immediate surgical intervention. Accurate diagnosis ensures appropriate treatment selection.

Secondary complications from corneal ulcers underscore the importance of prompt, effective treatment. Descemetocele develops when ulceration progresses to involve all corneal layers except the innermost Descemet's membrane, creating imminent perforation risk. Corneal perforation allows intraocular contents to escape and environmental pathogens to enter the eye's interior, typically resulting in eye loss despite aggressive treatment. Endophthalmitis—infection throughout the eye's interior—can spread to cause life-threatening septicemia in small mammals. Phthisis bulbi, shrinkage of the eye following severe injury or infection, leaves a blind, often chronically uncomfortable eye. Symblepharon, adhesion of the eyelid to the cornea, may result from severe ulceration and impede vision and eyelid function. These complications are largely preventable with early, appropriate treatment of initial corneal injuries.