Moraxella Bovis Infection (cattle)

Moraxella bovis infection, commonly known as infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis or pinkeye, represents one of the most economically significant and widespread ocular diseases affecting cattle worldwide. This highly contagious bacterial infection targets the cornea and conjunctival tissues of the eye, causing painful inflammation that can progress to corneal ulceration and potentially permanent vision loss if left untreated. The disease impacts cattle of all ages, breeds, and production types, though certain populations demonstrate increased susceptibility based on genetic factors, environmental conditions, and management practices.

The prevalence of Moraxella bovis infection varies seasonally and geographically, with peak incidence occurring during summer months when face fly populations reach their highest levels. Studies estimate that pinkeye affects millions of cattle annually across major cattle-producing regions, with herd-level attack rates sometimes exceeding fifty percent during severe outbreaks. The disease occurs in beef and dairy operations alike, in both intensive and extensive management systems, making it a nearly universal concern for cattle producers regardless of their operational type or scale.

Economic impact of Moraxella bovis infection extends across multiple areas of cattle production, creating substantial financial burdens for affected operations. Direct costs include veterinary services, medications, labor for treatment administration, and potential animal losses from severe cases or secondary complications. Indirect costs often exceed direct expenses and include reduced weight gain in growing cattle, decreased milk production in dairy cows, diminished reproductive performance, and reduced sale value of animals with corneal scarring. Industry estimates suggest annual losses in the hundreds of millions of dollars across the United States cattle industry alone.

Treatability of Moraxella bovis infection is generally favorable when cases are identified early and appropriate therapy is initiated promptly. The causative bacterium responds to several classes of antibiotics commonly approved for use in cattle, and supportive care measures can significantly improve comfort and healing outcomes. However, the importance of early detection cannot be overstated, as delayed treatment allows progression to severe corneal ulceration that may result in permanent scarring, globe rupture, or phthisis bulbi. Regular monitoring of cattle populations during high-risk periods enables the prompt intervention necessary for optimal treatment outcomes and minimization of economic losses.

The primary cause of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is Moraxella bovis, a gram-negative, aerobic coccobacillus bacterium with specific virulence factors enabling ocular colonization and tissue damage. This organism produces hemolysins and cytotoxins that destroy corneal epithelial cells, creating the characteristic ulcerative lesions of the disease. Pili on the bacterial surface facilitate attachment to corneal tissue, and piliated strains demonstrate significantly greater pathogenicity than non-piliated variants. More recently, Moraxella bovoculi has been identified as another causative agent, sometimes occurring as a co-infection with traditional M. bovis strains and potentially requiring modified treatment approaches.

Genetic and breed predisposition significantly influences susceptibility to Moraxella bovis infection, with certain cattle populations showing markedly higher disease rates. Cattle breeds with non-pigmented periocular skin and eyelids, including Herefords and Hereford crosses, demonstrate substantially increased vulnerability compared to breeds with fully pigmented eye areas. This increased susceptibility relates to reduced ultraviolet light protection for ocular tissues, increasing photosensitivity and potentially compromising local immune defenses. Selection for periocular pigmentation in susceptible breeds represents an important genetic approach to reducing herd-level disease incidence over time.

Environmental and management factors create conditions conducive to Moraxella bovis transmission and establishment of infection. Face flies serve as the primary mechanical vectors, carrying bacteria between animals and causing irritation that promotes bacterial attachment and invasion. Ultraviolet light exposure damages corneal epithelium, creating entry points for bacterial colonization. Tall grass, dust, plant awns, and other mechanical irritants cause corneal abrasions that predispose to infection. Crowding at water sources, feeding areas, or shade structures increases contact rates and transmission opportunities. Poor pasture conditions with abundant weeds and seed heads elevate mechanical irritation risk.

Risk factors for individual animals and herds encompass age, immune status, prior exposure history, and environmental circumstances. Young cattle experiencing their first grazing season often show highest susceptibility due to naive immune systems and lack of previous exposure to circulating strains. Animals stressed by transportation, dietary changes, concurrent disease, or adverse weather conditions demonstrate reduced disease resistance. Previous infection may provide partial immunity, though the duration and completeness of protection varies based on infecting strain characteristics and individual immune responses.

The pathophysiology of Moraxella bovis infection begins with bacterial deposition onto the corneal surface, typically facilitated by face fly feeding or direct contact with ocular secretions from infected animals. Piliated bacteria attach firmly to corneal epithelial cells, resisting removal by normal tear flow and blinking. Bacterial replication and toxin production cause progressive destruction of corneal epithelium, producing the characteristic central corneal ulcer. Inflammatory responses recruit neutrophils and other immune cells, creating the visible cloudiness and discharge associated with the disease. Ulceration may progress to involve deeper corneal layers, potentially leading to descemetocele formation or corneal perforation in severe cases.

Early warning signs of Moraxella bovis infection often appear quite subtle and require careful observation to detect before significant corneal damage occurs. Affected cattle may show increased tear production appearing as moisture streaking below the affected eye, sometimes before any visible changes to the eye itself become apparent. Mild squinting or increased blink rate suggests early ocular discomfort, and animals may hold the affected eye partially closed, particularly in bright sunlight. Increased fly activity concentrated around one animal's face relative to herdmates may indicate the attractant effect of early ocular inflammation and discharge.

Symptom presentation in cattle follows a relatively predictable progression, though severity and timing vary based on bacterial virulence, environmental factors, and individual animal characteristics. Initial conjunctival hyperemia creates a reddened appearance of the tissues surrounding the eye, often accompanied by swelling of the conjunctival membranes. Within one to two days, a small gray or white spot appears near the center of the cornea, representing the initial ulceration. This lesion expands over subsequent days, and corneal edema creates the characteristic bluish-white cloudy appearance that gives the disease its common name. Both eyes may become affected, though unilateral presentation occurs frequently, particularly early in outbreak situations.

Behavioral changes in cattle with pinkeye provide important indicators for early case detection during routine observation. Affected animals commonly seek shade more persistently than herdmates, reflecting photophobic discomfort intensified by bright sunlight. Grazing behavior may change, with affected cattle showing reduced time at pasture and difficulty locating feed or water sources. Social behavior often shifts, with affected individuals separating from the group or showing reduced interest in normal herd interactions. Decreased appetite and weight gain may become noticeable as discomfort intensifies and vision impairment interferes with foraging ability.

Physical signs visible on examination become more pronounced as infection progresses beyond the earliest stages. The affected eye displays marked tearing with overflow onto the face, often creating wet streaking patterns in the hair below the eye. Conjunctival tissues appear angry red with visible blood vessel engorgement, and periorbital swelling may be apparent. The cornea shows a distinctive central ulcer with surrounding white to bluish opacity from edema, and blood vessels may begin growing in from the limbus toward the lesion in cases of several days duration. Mucopurulent discharge may accumulate at the medial canthus, and the animal resists examination due to pain.

Symptom progression without treatment follows a pattern of increasing severity over one to three weeks. The corneal ulcer expands and deepens, potentially involving the full thickness of the cornea and threatening perforation. Dense corneal opacity may completely obscure visualization of internal eye structures. Blood vessel ingrowth from the limbus becomes more prominent, representing the healing response but also indicating chronicity. In severe cases, a dark protrusion through the ulcer indicates descemetocele formation with iris prolapse risk. Complete corneal perforation results in aqueous humor leakage, globe collapse, and typically irreversible vision loss in the affected eye.

Emergency symptoms requiring immediate veterinary intervention include any indication of corneal perforation such as sudden eye collapse or clear fluid discharge distinct from normal tearing, dark tissue protruding through the corneal surface suggesting iris prolapse, sudden onset of severe pain with complete eye closure, blood visible in the anterior chamber, fever accompanied by severe depression, and any respiratory signs suggesting systemic infection. Additionally, bilateral severe involvement threatening an animal's ability to see, navigate, and access feed and water warrants emergency attention to prevent welfare compromise and potential mortality from secondary complications.

Clinical examination provides the foundation for Moraxella bovis infection diagnosis, with experienced practitioners often able to make presumptive diagnoses based on characteristic presentation and epidemiological circumstances. Examination begins with assessment from a distance, observing the animal's behavior, head carriage, and response to visual stimuli. Closer examination requires adequate restraint, typically in a chute or headgate, with gentle handling to minimize stress and prevent additional corneal trauma. Both eyes should be systematically evaluated even when only one appears affected, as early contralateral lesions may be present. Examination includes evaluation of eyelid position, tear production, conjunctival appearance, corneal clarity, and assessment of any ulcerative lesions present.

Diagnostic testing confirms bacterial involvement and may guide treatment selection through antimicrobial susceptibility information. Bacterial culture from corneal or conjunctival swabs requires appropriate transport media and laboratory facilities equipped for Moraxella isolation. Polymerase chain reaction testing provides sensitive and specific detection of Moraxella bovis and can distinguish this pathogen from Moraxella bovoculi and other related organisms. Fluorescein staining represents an essential diagnostic tool, with the dye pooling in ulcerated areas to clearly delineate lesion extent and depth. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing guides antibiotic selection, particularly important given increasing reports of resistance in some Moraxella populations.

Differential diagnosis requires consideration of other conditions causing similar ocular signs in cattle, as accurate diagnosis guides appropriate treatment selection. Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis occasionally presents with primary ocular involvement, though respiratory signs typically predominate. Mycoplasma bovis conjunctivitis may occur independently or concurrent with pinkeye, sometimes complicating response to standard treatments. Foreign body injuries cause acute unilateral ocular irritation that may mimic early pinkeye lesions. Photosensitization reactions can affect periocular tissues and the cornea itself. Ocular neoplasia including squamous cell carcinoma and lymphoma must be considered in chronic or atypical presentations. Trauma from plant material, dust, or other environmental factors may predispose to or mimic infectious keratoconjunctivitis.

Herd-level diagnostics become important during outbreaks affecting multiple animals or when individual cases are not responding to treatment as expected. Analysis of affected animal distribution patterns across pastures or management groups may identify specific environmental risk factors. Face fly population monitoring and species identification confirms vector involvement. Environmental assessment identifies mechanical irritants such as tall grass with seed heads, dusty conditions, or inadequate shade availability. Review of vaccination history, previous outbreak experiences, and regional disease patterns provides epidemiological context. In operations experiencing repeated outbreaks, more comprehensive diagnostic workups including strain characterization may guide vaccine selection and prevention strategies.

Emergency and immediate treatment for severe Moraxella bovis infections focuses on pain relief, prevention of further corneal damage, and initiation of antimicrobial therapy. Animals with deep ulcers or evidence of impending perforation require immediate veterinary attention and potentially referral to facilities equipped for corneal surgery. Temporary protection of the eye through third eyelid flaps or tarsorraphy can be performed in field conditions when necessary to prevent catastrophic corneal rupture before definitive treatment is possible. Removal from bright sunlight to shaded areas reduces photophobic pain and limits additional ultraviolet damage to compromised corneal tissues.

Medical management of pinkeye relies primarily on antimicrobial therapy targeting Moraxella bovis through systemic and topical routes. Long-acting oxytetracycline remains widely used and effective for many cases, administered as a single injection with sustained tissue levels supporting resolution of uncomplicated infections. Tulathromycin and florfenicol represent alternative systemic options with different spectrums and pharmacokinetic profiles. Topical therapy using ophthalmic antibiotic preparations delivers high drug concentrations directly to the infection site, though administration frequency requirements may limit practicality in extensive management systems. All antibiotic use in food-producing cattle requires strict adherence to labeled dosages, routes, and withdrawal times, with accurate records maintained for regulatory compliance.

Surgical options address severe corneal damage threatening globe integrity or not responding to medical management alone. Third eyelid flap procedures provide mechanical protection of the cornea while maintaining antibiotic access and allowing continued topical treatment through injection beneath the flap. Temporary tarsorrhaphy, or suturing of eyelids together, offers similar protective benefits for appropriate cases. Conjunctival grafting may be performed for deep ulcers at risk of perforation, providing structural support and blood supply to promote healing. Enucleation becomes necessary when the globe is irreversibly damaged, chronically painful, or when the affected eye poses risk to the remaining eye or overall animal welfare.

Supportive care measures significantly impact treatment outcomes and animal comfort during the healing process. Pain management using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduces inflammation and discomfort while supporting continued feed intake. Fly control through topical repellents, ear tags, or environmental management reduces irritation and prevents ongoing bacterial transmission. Providing shade access allows affected animals to escape painful bright light exposure. Separation from the herd may be necessary to facilitate treatment and prevent transmission to susceptible herdmates. Adequate nutrition and hydration support immune function and tissue healing.

Herd treatment protocols address outbreak situations where multiple animals are affected or at high risk. Metaphylactic treatment of all animals in affected groups may be considered when attack rates are high and individual animal treatment is impractical. Immediate implementation of enhanced fly control measures across the operation reduces ongoing transmission. Identification and isolation of early cases prevents them from serving as infection sources for susceptible animals. Environmental modification to address identified risk factors, such as clipping tall grass or improving shade access, limits ongoing exposure. Veterinary consultation helps optimize treatment protocols for specific herd circumstances.

Treatment decision factors for individual animals include disease severity, animal value, practical treatment feasibility, and withdrawal time considerations. Early, uncomplicated cases carry excellent prognoses with appropriate treatment and generally justify intervention in any production animal. Severe cases with deep ulceration require careful evaluation of likely outcomes, treatment costs, and potential for recovery versus permanent disability. Proximity to anticipated marketing dates must be balanced against withdrawal time requirements, though animal welfare concerns should generally take precedence over economic optimization. Breeding animals with valuable genetics warrant aggressive treatment efforts, while commercial animals may face different threshold considerations based on replacement costs and treatment economics.

Recovery timeline for Moraxella bovis infection varies substantially based on initial severity and promptness of treatment initiation. Mild cases with superficial corneal involvement often show noticeable improvement within three to five days of appropriate treatment, with complete resolution occurring over two to three weeks. Moderate cases involving larger ulcer areas may require four to six weeks for complete healing, with progressive clearing of corneal opacity from the periphery toward the center. Severe cases with deep ulceration and extensive corneal damage require the longest recovery periods of two to three months or longer, and some degree of permanent scarring is common despite successful resolution of active infection.

Post-treatment care and monitoring protocols ensure complete healing and enable early detection of complications or treatment failure. Animals should be observed daily during the initial treatment period, with particular attention to signs of improvement or deterioration in corneal appearance. Reduction in tearing, decreased photophobia, and beginning of opacity clearing from the lesion edges indicate positive treatment response. Any worsening of clinical signs, development of new lesions, or failure to improve after appropriate treatment duration warrants veterinary reassessment. Follow-up examinations at one week and one month post-treatment document healing progress and identify any animals that may require continued care.

Prognostic factors influencing recovery outcomes and long-term visual function include ulcer depth at treatment initiation, time elapsed before treatment, presence of secondary complications, and adequacy of treatment protocol. Superficial ulcers limited to the corneal epithelium carry excellent prognoses for complete recovery with minimal scarring. Deeper ulcers extending into the corneal stroma typically heal with some degree of permanent opacity, though peripheral scarring may minimally affect central vision. Cases involving perforation or iris prolapse carry guarded prognoses, with many resulting in non-functional eyes even with aggressive intervention. Secondary bacterial contamination or failure to adequately control flies during healing may complicate and extend recovery periods.

Return to production considerations require evaluation of both visual function and any ongoing treatment or withdrawal requirements before animals resume normal activities. Visual assessment should confirm adequate sight for safe navigation of the environment, locating feed and water, and performing species-appropriate behaviors. Animals returning to pasture should be monitored for any difficulties related to residual visual impairment, particularly in complex terrain or challenging environmental conditions. Withdrawal periods for all administered antibiotics must be completed before animals can be marketed for slaughter or, in dairy animals, before milk can enter the food supply. Documentation of treatment dates and projected withdrawal completion should be maintained for regulatory compliance and quality assurance purposes.

Vaccination protocols represent an important component of Moraxella bovis prevention programs, though vaccines alone do not provide complete protection against disease. Commercial vaccines containing piliated M. bovis strains are widely available and provide variable levels of protection depending on match between vaccine strains and field strains present in specific geographic areas. Autogenous vaccines prepared from organisms isolated from affected animals on individual operations may provide improved protection when commercial products have proven inadequate. Vaccination timing typically aims for administration several weeks before the anticipated pinkeye season to allow adequate immune response development. Annual revaccination is generally recommended, with some protocols calling for two-dose primary series in previously unvaccinated animals.

Biosecurity measures help prevent introduction of new Moraxella strains and reduce transmission within affected herds. Quarantine of newly purchased animals before introduction to the main herd allows observation for early disease signs and reduces potential for introducing novel strains. Separation of affected animals from the main group limits ongoing transmission to susceptible herdmates. Dedicated equipment and personnel for handling affected animals prevents mechanical transmission on hands, clothing, and shared tools. Face fly management as discussed below represents a critical biosecurity component given the primary vector role of these insects.

Nutritional prevention focuses on supporting immune function and maintaining ocular tissue health through balanced dietary programs. Adequate vitamin A status is essential for maintenance of corneal epithelial integrity, and deficiency increases susceptibility to corneal infections. Trace mineral supplementation, particularly zinc, selenium, and copper, supports immune function and tissue repair processes. Good body condition entering the high-risk summer season reflects adequate nutritional plane supporting disease resistance. Avoidance of rapid dietary changes during high-risk periods reduces stress that may compromise immune competence.

Management practices addressing environmental risk factors substantially reduce pinkeye incidence through interruption of transmission and reduction of predisposing conditions. Face fly control using insecticide ear tags, pour-on products, back rubbers, dust bags, and feed-through larvicides reduces vector populations and mechanical irritation. Pasture management including clipping or grazing management to control tall grass with seed heads eliminates mechanical irritants contacting eyes at cattle face height. Provision of adequate shade reduces ultraviolet exposure and associated corneal epithelial damage. Management of dust through water application or avoiding dusty areas during peak fly season limits corneal irritation. Appropriate stocking density prevents crowding that facilitates transmission.

Quarantine and testing protocols support prevention in operations with significant pinkeye concerns or valuable cattle requiring protection. New arrivals should be isolated for two to three weeks with monitoring for ocular abnormalities before joining established groups. Testing for Moraxella carriage may be considered for animals entering high-health status herds. Environmental monitoring of face fly populations guides timing of control measures and vaccine administration. Herd-level screening during high-risk periods enables early identification and treatment of index cases before widespread transmission occurs. Documentation of herd pinkeye history informs veterinary recommendations for prevention programs.

Daily management and monitoring during pinkeye season requires heightened attention to early case detection and prompt intervention. Morning and evening observation of all cattle should include assessment of each animal's eye appearance from a distance, watching for excessive tearing, squinting, or abnormal head carriage. Animals showing any ocular abnormalities require closer examination with adequate restraint to properly evaluate the condition. During peak season, consideration should be given to running cattle through handling facilities periodically specifically for eye examination, enabling detection of early cases that might not be apparent from horseback or vehicle observation. Recording of all cases and their locations supports recognition of outbreak patterns and high-risk areas.

Housing and environmental management for cattle populations addresses key risk factors contributing to Moraxella bovis transmission and establishment. Provision of adequate shade structures reduces ultraviolet exposure that predisposes to corneal damage, with portable shade particularly valuable for rotational grazing systems. Water sources should be distributed adequately to prevent crowding that facilitates fly-mediated transmission between animals. Pasture management maintaining appropriate forage height reduces mechanical irritation from tall grass seed heads contacting eyes. Dust control through timing of cattle movements, water application in handling areas, and avoidance of excessively dry, dusty pastures limits corneal epithelial damage.

Herd health programs integrating pinkeye prevention with overall animal health management optimize resource use and outcomes across multiple health challenges. Written protocols establishing standard operating procedures for monitoring, early detection, treatment, and prevention provide consistent guidance across personnel changes and time. Vaccination schedules should align with anticipated seasonal risk, typically with administration three to four weeks before pinkeye season onset. Integration of fly control with other external parasite management programs improves efficiency and compliance. Regular veterinary consultation supports program refinement based on herd experiences and emerging information regarding regional disease patterns or resistance trends.

Record keeping and monitoring systems enable tracking of disease patterns, treatment outcomes, and prevention program effectiveness over time. Individual animal health records should document all pinkeye cases including severity, treatment protocols, and outcomes. Affected animals should be identified for subsequent monitoring as prior infection may indicate individual susceptibility factors. Herd-level records tracking annual incidence, timing of outbreaks, and pasture-specific patterns support risk identification and targeted prevention efforts. Treatment outcome documentation including cure rates and time to resolution helps evaluate protocol effectiveness. Cost tracking including veterinary services, medications, labor, and production losses supports economic analysis of prevention investments.

Economic considerations in pinkeye management require balancing prevention costs against potential disease losses and treatment expenses. Prevention investments including vaccines, fly control products, environmental modifications, and monitoring labor represent ongoing operational costs that should be evaluated against expected disease reduction benefits. Treatment costs vary based on severity and chosen protocols but typically include medication, labor, and potential veterinary fees for complicated cases. Production losses from reduced weight gain, decreased milk production, and reproductive impacts often exceed direct treatment costs. Marketing discounts for animals with visible corneal scarring reduce returns from affected animals. Enterprise-level analysis incorporating all cost categories supports informed decision-making about prevention and treatment program investments.

High-risk breeds for Moraxella bovis infection are primarily distinguished by periocular pigmentation patterns rather than differences in immune competence or other disease resistance factors. Hereford cattle demonstrate the highest susceptibility due to their characteristic red body color with white faces, leaving the eyelids and surrounding tissues unpigmented and vulnerable to ultraviolet damage. Simmental and Charolais cattle with minimal facial pigmentation also show increased risk compared to breeds with dark pigmented periocular areas. Crossbred cattle inherit variable pigmentation patterns that influence their individual susceptibility, with animals displaying non-pigmented eyelids showing Hereford-type vulnerability regardless of other breed composition.

Production type considerations influence both disease risk and management priority for Moraxella bovis infection control. Beef cattle on extensive pasture systems face constant exposure to environmental risk factors including flies, ultraviolet radiation, and mechanical irritants that may be less prominent in confined dairy operations. However, dairy cattle experience their own risk factors including stress of high production, frequent handling, and potential for transmission in milking parlor settings. Purebred cattle operations where individual animal identification and genetic value are paramount typically invest more heavily in prevention and treatment than commercial operations where replacement is economically viable. Feeder cattle operations face particular challenges as incoming cattle from multiple sources may carry different Moraxella strains.

Genetic selection and testing for pinkeye resistance offers promising opportunities for long-term reduction of disease susceptibility through breeding decisions. Selection for complete periocular pigmentation in Hereford populations has been practiced by many breeders with documented success in reducing herd-level incidence. Estimated breeding values incorporating eye pigmentation scores enable systematic genetic progress toward reduced susceptibility. Research continues into identification of genetic markers associated with disease resistance independent of pigmentation effects. Culling considerations should include animals with repeated pinkeye episodes, particularly breeding stock that may pass susceptibility to offspring. Line breeding programs should consider disease susceptibility alongside production traits to avoid inadvertently selecting for increased vulnerability.

Commonly co-occurring conditions with Moraxella bovis infection reflect shared risk factors, complicating treatment responses, and secondary complications arising during disease course. Moraxella bovoculi infection occurs concurrently with traditional pinkeye in many herds, potentially explaining some cases of poor response to standard treatments. Mycoplasma bovis ocular involvement may complicate pinkeye cases, requiring modified treatment approaches. Bovine respiratory disease frequently affects the same young cattle populations susceptible to pinkeye, and concurrent illness in these animals may be common during stress periods. Secondary bacterial contamination of corneal ulcers with organisms including Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, or Streptococcus species may complicate healing and require adjusted antimicrobial therapy.

Conditions with similar symptoms requiring differentiation from pinkeye include several infectious and non-infectious causes of bovine ocular disease. Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis may present with ocular involvement producing similar conjunctivitis and tearing, though respiratory signs typically predominate. Listeriosis occasionally presents with ocular involvement before neurological signs become apparent. Thelaziasis caused by eyeworm parasites produces conjunctivitis and tearing that may mimic early pinkeye. Squamous cell carcinoma of the eye and surrounding tissues may be misdiagnosed as chronic pinkeye, particularly in early stages. Foreign body injuries cause acute unilateral ocular irritation requiring differentiation from infectious keratoconjunctivitis.

Complications and sequelae following Moraxella bovis infection may affect long-term animal welfare and productivity even after resolution of acute disease. Corneal scarring resulting from healed ulcers creates permanent opacity that may impair vision to varying degrees depending on size, density, and location relative to the central visual axis. Descemetocele formation and corneal perforation in severe cases may result in phthisis bulbi, a shrunken non-functional eye that while painless may create aesthetic concerns for breeding stock or show animals. Synechiae between the iris and cornea may develop following perforation with iris prolapse. Rarely, panophthalmitis may develop from severe corneal infections, resulting in loss of the globe to infectious destruction. Animals with significant visual impairment from unilateral or bilateral disease may have reduced productivity and potentially increased risk of injury.