Fractures (leg, foot, toe)

Fractures in guinea pigs are breaks or cracks in the bones, most commonly affecting the legs, feet, and toes. These injuries can range from small hairline cracks that may be difficult to detect to complete breaks where the bone separates into two or more pieces. Due to their delicate skeletal structure and prey animal nature, guinea pigs are unfortunately susceptible to bone injuries from falls, improper handling, and accidents in their environment. The long bones of the legs, particularly the tibia and fibula of the hind legs, are most frequently affected, followed by the small bones of the feet and toes.

Fractures are among the most common serious injuries seen in guinea pigs, though they are still relatively uncommon overall in well-cared-for animals. The primary cause is traumatic injury, with falls from heights being the leading culprit. Because guinea pigs have poor depth perception and no instinctual fear of edges, they can easily walk off the edge of a table, bed, or even an owner's lap. Their bones are not designed to absorb significant impact, so even falls from relatively low heights can result in fractures. Improper handling, particularly when guinea pigs struggle and are dropped or when limbs are restrained awkwardly, accounts for many other fracture cases.

The impact of a fracture on a guinea pig's health and quality of life is significant and extends beyond just the bone injury itself. Pain from the fracture can cause guinea pigs to stop eating, which in these animals can rapidly lead to life-threatening gastrointestinal stasis. The stress of injury and reduced mobility affects their immune system and overall wellbeing. Guinea pigs are social animals who need interaction with companions, and a fracture can disrupt normal social dynamics. The inability to perform normal behaviors like grooming, eating comfortably, and moving around causes psychological as well as physical distress.

The encouraging news is that fractures in guinea pigs are generally treatable when addressed promptly by a veterinarian experienced in exotic animal medicine. Guinea pigs have good bone healing capacity, and many fractures can be managed successfully with stabilization, pain control, and supportive care. Some fractures require surgical intervention with pins or other fixation devices, while others can heal with external splinting or cage rest alone. The key to successful outcomes is rapid veterinary attention, as delays in treatment significantly worsen prognosis. With appropriate care, many guinea pigs recover well from fractures and return to normal or near-normal function.

The primary causes of fractures in guinea pigs are traumatic injuries, with falls being the most common mechanism. Guinea pigs have a combination of factors that make them vulnerable to fall injuries. They have relatively poor eyesight with limited depth perception, which means they may not recognize edges and drop-offs as dangerous. They lack the righting reflex that cats have, so they cannot twist to land on their feet during a fall. Their bones are lightweight and delicate, designed for a ground-dwelling lifestyle rather than absorbing impact. Even a fall from a height of two to three feet can result in serious fractures. Falls from tables, beds, laps, and arms are the most frequently reported sources of fracture injuries.

Improper handling is another major cause of guinea pig fractures. Guinea pigs can be wiggly and may struggle when being picked up or held, especially if they are frightened. If a struggling guinea pig is dropped, fracture can result. Restraining a limb too tightly or twisting it during handling can cause bone breaks. Children who are not properly supervised or educated about gentle handling may inadvertently injure guinea pigs. Grabbing a guinea pig by a single leg, which should never be done, can cause severe fractures. Even well-intentioned handling can go wrong if the guinea pig panics and launches itself from the handler's arms.

Environmental hazards within the cage and during floor time contribute to fracture risk. Wire-bottomed cages are dangerous because guinea pig legs and feet can become trapped between the wires and broken during struggles to escape. Cage bars spaced too widely apart can allow guinea pigs to stick their heads or legs through and become stuck. Wheels and balls designed for hamsters should never be used with guinea pigs as they can cause spinal and limb injuries. During floor time, guinea pigs can get caught under rocking chairs, stepped on, or injured by other pets. Gaps in furniture or between cushions can trap and injure guinea pig limbs.

Several risk factors increase the likelihood of fractures occurring or the severity when they do occur. Vitamin C deficiency, which is extremely common in guinea pigs since they cannot synthesize this essential nutrient, leads to weakened bones that fracture more easily. Metabolic bone disease from calcium or vitamin D imbalances similarly compromises bone strength. Satin guinea pigs are prone to osteodystrophy, a progressive bone-weakening condition that dramatically increases fracture risk. Older guinea pigs may have age-related bone loss that makes them more vulnerable. Young guinea pigs are more active and adventurous, leading to more accident opportunities. Obesity puts extra stress on bones with every movement.

The mechanism of fracture development depends on the type and direction of force applied to the bone. Direct trauma, such as a guinea pig being stepped on, causes fractures at the point of impact. Indirect trauma, such as landing awkwardly from a fall, can cause fractures distant from where the force was applied as the energy transmits through the skeleton. Twisting forces can cause spiral fractures where the bone breaks in a helical pattern. High-energy impacts tend to cause comminuted fractures with multiple bone fragments, while lower-energy trauma may cause simple transverse or oblique fractures. The pattern of the fracture influences treatment options and prognosis.

Early warning signs of a fracture may be present immediately after the injury occurs, though guinea pigs as prey animals instinctively try to hide pain and weakness. Immediately following an accident, the guinea pig may freeze in place, squeal in pain, or attempt to flee. They may subsequently become very still and reluctant to move. Subtle early signs include positioning that takes weight off the affected limb, sitting hunched in one place rather than exploring normally, and decreased interest in food or surroundings. Some guinea pigs may lick or attention to the injured area. A sudden change in behavior or activity level following any potential injury should prompt careful examination.

Obvious symptoms of fractures become apparent upon closer observation. The most distinctive sign is an inability or refusal to bear weight on the affected limb. The guinea pig may hold the injured leg up completely or drag it when moving. For leg fractures, there may be visible deformity where the normal smooth contour of the limb is disrupted. The fractured area may appear bent, twisted, or shortened compared to the opposite leg. Swelling develops rapidly around the fracture site as inflammation and hemorrhage occur in the tissues. The area may feel warm to the touch due to the inflammatory response.

Behavioral changes accompanying fractures are typically pronounced. Guinea pigs in pain become very quiet and withdrawn, often hiding in a corner or shelter and refusing to come out even for favorite foods. Appetite almost always decreases, and many guinea pigs stop eating entirely due to pain and stress. This anorexia is dangerous as it can trigger gastrointestinal stasis within as little as twelve hours. The guinea pig may resist handling and may vocalize loudly when the injured area is touched or when they attempt to move. Normal social behaviors may cease, and the guinea pig may seem depressed with dull eyes and a ruffled coat. Some guinea pigs become irritable and may bite when approached, which is a dramatic change for typically gentle animals.

Physical signs vary depending on the location and severity of the fracture. Leg fractures typically cause obvious lameness and may show visible deformity. Foot fractures may cause the foot to appear swollen or held at an unusual angle. Toe fractures may be more subtle, with swelling and reluctance to bear weight but less obvious deformity. In severe or open fractures, the bone may be visible through a wound in the skin, which is a serious emergency. Bruising may be visible as dark discoloration under the skin around the fracture. Crepitus, which is a grinding sensation when the fracture site is gently palpated, may be present though this examination should be performed carefully to avoid causing additional pain or injury.

Symptom progression depends on whether and how quickly treatment is provided. Without treatment, swelling continues to increase, and the guinea pig becomes increasingly immobile and withdrawn. Pain intensifies as inflammation peaks in the hours following injury. The guinea pig will likely stop eating completely, leading to decreasing fecal output and signs of gastrointestinal distress. General condition deteriorates as pain, stress, and lack of nutrition take their toll. If the fracture is open or if bone fragments damage blood vessels or nerves, additional complications can develop.

Emergency symptoms requiring immediate veterinary attention include any suspected fracture, but especially open fractures where bone is visible or there are wounds near the fracture site, fractures with severe deformity suggesting complete breaks or multiple fragments, signs of shock including pale gums, cold extremities, rapid shallow breathing, or collapse, inability to move at all, and cessation of eating or drinking. While all fractures should be seen by a veterinarian as soon as possible, these emergency presentations require care within hours rather than waiting for the next available appointment. Life-threatening gastrointestinal stasis can develop within twelve to twenty-four hours of a guinea pig stopping eating.

Initial examination by a veterinarian experienced in exotic animal medicine begins with obtaining a thorough history of the injury. Information about how and when the injury occurred, what the guinea pig has been doing since the injury, and any changes in eating, drinking, or bathroom habits helps guide the examination. The veterinarian will observe the guinea pig's posture, breathing, and overall demeanor, noting signs of pain or shock. A careful physical examination follows, during which the vet systematically evaluates the suspected injured area as well as the rest of the body to check for additional injuries. Gentle palpation helps localize the fracture site, assess swelling, and evaluate for instability. The veterinarian will compare the affected limb to the opposite side to identify asymmetries.

Diagnostic imaging is essential for confirming fractures and planning appropriate treatment. Radiographs, commonly known as X-rays, are the standard diagnostic tool and clearly show bone abnormalities including fractures, their location, pattern, and severity. Multiple views are typically taken to fully characterize the injury. The X-rays reveal whether the fracture is simple with two bone fragments or comminuted with multiple pieces, whether the bone ends are displaced or still in relatively good alignment, and whether the fracture involves a joint. Any concurrent problems such as pre-existing bone disease, additional fractures, or dislocations are also identified. Sedation may be necessary for radiographs, especially if the guinea pig is in severe pain, as proper positioning is required for diagnostic-quality images.

Additional diagnostic tests may be recommended depending on the individual case. Blood work helps assess overall health status, which is important if anesthesia will be needed for treatment. Vitamin C levels may be measured if deficiency is suspected as a contributing factor. In older guinea pigs or cases where bone quality appears poor on radiographs, evaluation for metabolic bone disease may be warranted. If an open fracture is present, bacterial culture of wound samples guides antibiotic selection. Assessment of the guinea pig's cardiovascular status is important before any sedation or anesthesia.

Differential diagnosis involves distinguishing fractures from other causes of lameness and limb abnormalities. Dislocations can present similarly with inability to use a limb and deformity, but radiographs clearly differentiate these from fractures. Soft tissue injuries such as sprains, strains, or muscle tears cause pain and lameness without bone abnormality on X-rays. Abscesses, which are common in guinea pigs, can cause swelling and reluctance to use a limb but appear differently on imaging. Tumors affecting bones may cause pain and potentially pathological fractures through weakened bone. Pododermatitis affects the feet and can cause lameness but involves the soft tissues rather than bones. The radiographs combined with physical examination findings allow the veterinarian to make an accurate diagnosis and formulate an appropriate treatment plan based on the specific nature of the injury.

Emergency and immediate treatment for a guinea pig with a suspected fracture focuses on stabilization, pain management, and preventing further injury while preparing for definitive care. The guinea pig should be carefully placed in a small, padded enclosure with towels or fleece to restrict movement and provide support. Movement should be minimized during transport to the veterinarian to prevent displacement of the fracture. Pain control is a priority, and the veterinarian will administer pain medication such as meloxicam or buprenorphine as soon as possible. If the guinea pig shows signs of shock, supportive care including fluid therapy and warming may be needed before any other intervention.

Non-surgical management is appropriate for some fractures, particularly simple, stable fractures with minimal displacement, or fractures of small bones like toes. External coaptation using splints, bandages, or casts can stabilize certain fractures and allow healing. The type of stabilization depends on which bone is fractured and the fracture pattern. Splinting must be done carefully in guinea pigs to avoid restricting circulation or causing pressure sores. The splint or bandage needs regular monitoring and changing. Strict cage rest in a small, single-level enclosure is essential during healing. Pain medication continues throughout the recovery period. This conservative approach works well for many fractures in guinea pigs when the bone ends remain reasonably well aligned.

Surgical treatment is recommended for unstable fractures, fractures with significant displacement, open fractures, and fractures that cannot be adequately stabilized with external methods. Surgical options include placement of pins, wires, or external fixators to hold bone fragments in proper alignment during healing. Internal fixation with pins running through the bone marrow cavity is commonly used for long bone fractures. External fixators use pins that pass through the bone and are connected by an external frame, allowing adjustment and access to wounds if needed. In some cases of severely comminuted fractures or fractures with extensive soft tissue damage, amputation may be the most humane option. Guinea pigs typically adapt well to life as tripods following limb amputation. Anesthesia in guinea pigs requires specialized protocols, and only medications safe for guinea pigs should be used.

Supportive care is critical for recovery regardless of whether surgical or non-surgical treatment is chosen. Guinea pigs often stop eating when in pain, so syringe feeding with a critical care formula specifically designed for herbivores may be necessary to prevent gastrointestinal stasis. Vitamin C supplementation at therapeutic doses supports healing as this vitamin is essential for collagen formation in bone repair. Fluid support may be needed if the guinea pig is not drinking adequately. The guinea pig should be housed on soft, supportive bedding that stays clean and dry. Access to hay, water, and food should be easy without requiring climbing or significant movement.

Complementary approaches support healing and recovery. Physical therapy may be beneficial once initial bone healing has occurred, though any exercises should be gentle and guided by veterinary recommendation. Maintaining gentle handling and social contact helps reduce stress and supports psychological wellbeing. Ensuring the guinea pig has contact with companions, if present, even if direct contact must be limited, provides emotional support. Environmental enrichment that does not require significant movement helps maintain mental stimulation during cage rest.

Treatment decisions are influenced by multiple factors including the specific bone affected, fracture pattern and severity, whether the fracture is open or closed, the guinea pig's age and overall health, presence of underlying conditions affecting bone quality, and practical considerations including cost of treatment and owner's ability to provide follow-up care. Open fractures with wound contamination have higher complication rates. Fractures in guinea pigs with vitamin C deficiency or metabolic bone disease may heal more slowly. The veterinarian will discuss options and help determine the most appropriate treatment approach for each case.

The recovery timeline for fractures in guinea pigs varies depending on which bone was fractured, the severity and type of fracture, the treatment method used, and individual healing capacity. Simple fractures of small bones like toes may heal in three to four weeks. Long bone fractures typically require six to eight weeks for initial bone healing. Surgical repairs may allow earlier return to function in some cases due to the stability provided by internal fixation. Complete healing and remodeling of bone continues for several months after the initial union. Return to normal activity is gradual and should be guided by veterinary assessment and follow-up radiographs confirming adequate healing.

Post-treatment care during the recovery period is intensive and critically important for successful outcomes. Cage rest in a small, single-level enclosure must be maintained throughout the healing period, which may feel lengthy but is essential for proper bone healing. Syringe feeding with critical care formula continues until the guinea pig is eating adequate amounts on their own. Pain medication must be given consistently as prescribed, as pain control affects both welfare and willingness to eat. Any splints or bandages require regular checking for slippage, soiling, or signs of problems underneath such as odor or swelling. Surgical sites need monitoring for signs of infection. Follow-up veterinary appointments allow assessment of healing progress and may include repeat radiographs.

Prognosis factors for fracture recovery in guinea pigs are generally favorable with appropriate treatment. Simple fractures with good alignment have excellent prognosis for return to normal function. The speed and quality of healing depend on several factors. Age plays a role, with younger guinea pigs typically healing faster than seniors. Nutritional status is crucial, particularly adequate vitamin C and calcium for bone repair. Underlying conditions such as metabolic bone disease negatively impact healing. Infection of open fractures or surgical sites complicates recovery. Owner compliance with post-operative instructions significantly affects outcomes. Fractures involving joints may have residual stiffness or increased arthritis risk.

Long-term outlook for guinea pigs who have recovered from fractures is generally good. Most guinea pigs return to normal or near-normal function following healed fractures. Some may have minor residual effects such as slight stiffness or limping, particularly in cold weather or after resting, but these typically do not significantly impact quality of life. The healed bone may be stronger at the fracture site than the original bone, though guinea pigs who have had one fracture should be protected from future injury risks. Long-term, arthritis may develop at sites where fractures involved joints. Guinea pigs who required amputation adapt remarkably well and can live full, happy lives as tripods. Preventing future fractures through environmental safety and proper handling remains important.

Primary prevention of fractures centers on safe handling practices that minimize the risk of falls and injuries. Guinea pigs should always be picked up using two hands with one hand supporting the chest and the other supporting the hindquarters, ensuring the entire body is well supported. They should never be grabbed by a single limb. When holding a guinea pig, keep them against your body or over a soft surface to minimize fall distance if they struggle. Handling should be done while seated or on the floor whenever possible. Children must be properly supervised and taught gentle handling techniques appropriate for guinea pigs. Never allow guinea pigs on elevated surfaces like tables, counters, or beds without close supervision and physical barriers preventing falls. Be especially careful when guinea pigs are startled, as they may suddenly jump.

Environmental prevention involves creating safe living spaces that eliminate hazards. The guinea pig cage should never have wire flooring, which can trap and break legs. Cage bars should be appropriately spaced so guinea pigs cannot get limbs or heads stuck between them. If multi-level caging is used, levels should be low with gentle ramps and solid barriers to prevent falls. Wheels, balls, and exercise equipment designed for hamsters are dangerous for guinea pigs and should never be used. During floor time, the area should be guinea pig-proofed to eliminate hiding spots where they could be stepped on, gaps where limbs could become trapped, and access to high furniture. Other household pets should be separated from guinea pigs. Rocking chairs and reclining furniture should not be used in areas where guinea pigs have floor time.

Dietary prevention supports strong bones that can better withstand minor trauma. Vitamin C supplementation is essential as guinea pigs cannot synthesize this nutrient and deficiency weakens bones and connective tissues. Daily provision of vitamin C through fresh vegetables, particularly bell peppers, supplemented pellets, or direct supplementation ensures adequate intake. A balanced diet with proper calcium to phosphorus ratio supports bone health. Unlimited grass hay provides essential nutrients and fiber. Avoiding obesity reduces the forces bones must bear with each movement. Ensuring adequate but not excessive vitamin D from appropriate light exposure or diet supports calcium metabolism.

Regular health maintenance identifies problems that might increase fracture risk before injuries occur. Annual veterinary examinations with an exotic-experienced vet should include assessment of mobility and bone health. Monitoring for signs of metabolic bone disease or vitamin C deficiency allows early intervention. Regular nail trims prevent overgrown nails that can catch and lead to falls or injuries. Weight monitoring ensures guinea pigs stay in healthy range. Satin guinea pigs should be monitored especially carefully for signs of osteodystrophy. Any signs of lameness or mobility changes should prompt veterinary evaluation.

Early intervention strategies help prevent minor bone problems from becoming serious fractures. If metabolic bone disease or vitamin C deficiency is suspected, prompt treatment prevents progression and strengthens bones. Environmental hazards should be corrected immediately when identified. Guinea pigs recovering from illness or surgery may need extra protection during periods of weakness. Educating all family members and visitors about proper guinea pig handling prevents accidents. Having a relationship established with an exotic veterinarian ensures care is readily available if injury does occur, and rapid treatment improves outcomes.

Daily management during fracture recovery requires consistent attention to multiple aspects of care. Monitoring the guinea pig's comfort and pain levels through observation of behavior, appetite, and activity helps assess recovery progress. Medication must be administered on schedule, with pain control being particularly important. The fracture site or surgical incision should be visually checked daily for any concerning changes such as increased swelling, discharge, or changes in the guinea pig's use of the limb. Food and water intake should be monitored closely, with syringe feeding provided if the guinea pig is not eating adequately on their own. Any splints or bandages need checking for proper positioning and any signs of problems.

Home environment modifications are essential during recovery and may benefit the guinea pig long-term. A small, single-level enclosure prevents dangerous movement during healing. Soft, supportive bedding such as fleece over padding provides comfort and protects the fracture from hard surfaces. All necessities including food, water, hay, and a hiding spot should be within easy reach so the guinea pig does not need to travel far. Low-sided dishes prevent the need to reach up. If the guinea pig has companions, they may need to be housed adjacent with visual contact rather than together, depending on activity levels and the stability of the fracture. Gradual return to normal housing can occur once healing is confirmed by the veterinarian.

Quality of life maintenance ensures the guinea pig remains as content as possible during the extended recovery period. Mental stimulation through interaction, gentle handling, and provision of safe enrichment items helps prevent boredom and depression. Maintaining social connections with companions, even if through barriers initially, is important for these social animals. Favorite foods and treats can encourage eating and provide positive experiences. Gentle grooming helps maintain coat condition when the guinea pig cannot groom normally. Speaking softly and spending time near the guinea pig provides reassurance. Recognizing that guinea pigs may seem depressed during cage rest is normal, and their spirits typically improve as healing progresses.

Ongoing monitoring and follow-up care track healing progress and identify any complications early. Follow-up veterinary appointments, typically every two to four weeks during active healing, assess bone union and overall recovery. Repeat radiographs confirm the fracture is healing properly and help determine when activity restrictions can be relaxed. Any return of lameness, new swelling, or behavioral changes should prompt immediate veterinary consultation. Once healing is complete, gradual return to normal activity prevents re-injury. Long-term monitoring for signs of arthritis or other complications at the fracture site should continue throughout the guinea pig's life.

Caregiver support resources help owners manage the demands of fracture care. Exotic veterinarians provide guidance specific to the individual case and are available for questions and concerns. Online communities for guinea pig owners offer emotional support and practical tips from others who have navigated similar situations. Having all necessary supplies on hand, including syringe feeding equipment, medication, and appropriate bedding, ensures care can be provided consistently. Understanding that recovery takes time and that cage rest, while difficult to watch, is necessary helps caregivers maintain patience. Celebrating small milestones like return of appetite or increased activity keeps spirits up during the weeks of recovery.

While fractures from traumatic injury can occur in any guinea pig regardless of breed, Satin guinea pigs have a significantly elevated risk due to their predisposition to osteodystrophy. This progressive bone disease, unique to the Satin variety, causes abnormal bone metabolism resulting in weakened, fragile bones that fracture much more easily than normal bone. Satin guinea pigs may experience spontaneous fractures from normal activities or fractures from very minor trauma that would not injure a guinea pig with normal bones. The condition is hereditary and related to the gene responsible for the distinctive satin coat sheen. Owners of Satin guinea pigs must be especially vigilant about preventing falls and creating safe environments, and should monitor for any signs of bone problems.

Other breeds do not have documented genetic predispositions to fractures, but certain characteristics may influence injury risk to some degree. Larger guinea pigs have more body mass, which means more force applied to bones during falls or accidents, potentially increasing fracture severity. Active, adventurous individual guinea pigs of any breed may have more opportunities for accidents. Young guinea pigs are typically more active and may take more risks, while older guinea pigs may have age-related bone weakening that increases fracture susceptibility from lesser trauma. Long-haired breeds with hair covering their eyes may have reduced vision predisposing them to accidents. However, these factors are minor compared to environmental safety and handling practices in determining fracture risk.

Breeder responsibilities regarding fractures primarily involve the ethical considerations around breeding Satin guinea pigs given the osteodystrophy risk. Some advocates call for discontinuing Satin breeding entirely, while others support breeding with full disclosure to buyers about health risks. At minimum, breeders should educate buyers about the condition and special precautions needed. For all breeds, breeders should ensure proper nutrition and housing for breeding stock and young guinea pigs, as early nutrition affects bone development. Educating new owners about safe handling and fall prevention is perhaps the most important contribution breeders can make to preventing fractures, as most result from preventable accidents rather than genetic factors.

Several conditions commonly co-occur with fractures or may contribute to their development. Dislocations frequently accompany fractures, as traumatic forces sufficient to break bone can also displace joints. Radiographs taken to diagnose fractures should be evaluated for concurrent dislocations. Soft tissue injuries including torn ligaments, strained muscles, and damaged blood vessels typically accompany fractures and affect the recovery process. Vitamin C deficiency is common in guinea pigs and contributes to weakened bones and connective tissues, potentially predisposing to fractures and impairing healing. Metabolic bone disease from various causes weakens bones and increases fracture risk. The osteodystrophy seen in Satin guinea pigs dramatically increases fracture susceptibility.

Conditions with symptoms similar to fractures that must be differentiated include dislocations, which cause similar lameness and deformity but involve joint displacement rather than bone breakage. Soft tissue injuries such as sprains, strains, or bruises can cause pain and limping without bone involvement. Abscesses, which are common in guinea pigs, can cause swelling near bones and reluctance to use a limb. Pododermatitis causes foot pain and altered gait but affects soft tissues rather than bones. Arthritis may cause chronic lameness that could be mistaken for an old injury. Tumors affecting bones may cause pain, lameness, and in some cases pathological fractures through weakened bone. Neurological conditions can affect limb use in ways that might be confused with orthopedic injuries.

Potential complications from fractures extend beyond the bone injury itself. Gastrointestinal stasis is a serious and potentially life-threatening complication that can develop when pain causes guinea pigs to stop eating. Infection is a risk, particularly with open fractures or following surgery. Delayed union or nonunion occurs when bone fails to heal properly. Malunion results in bone healing in abnormal alignment, potentially causing permanent limb dysfunction. Muscle atrophy develops during immobilization and may require rehabilitation. Arthritis commonly develops at fracture sites, especially those involving joints. Chronic pain may persist in some cases. In severe fractures, damage to blood vessels or nerves may cause lasting complications. The stress of injury and treatment can affect overall health and immune function in these sensitive animals.