Cape House Snake
Species Description

The Cape House Snake (Boaedon capensis) belongs to the genus Boaedon, a group of African snakes commonly called house snakes due to their frequent presence around human habitations where they hunt rodents. This species is native to southern Africa, with its range centered on the Cape region of South Africa and extending through neighboring countries. The genus has undergone significant taxonomic revision in recent decades, with what was formerly considered a single widespread species now recognized as a complex of multiple species with distinct geographic distributions.

The genus name Boaedon derives from Greek elements meaning "boa-like tooth," referencing dental characteristics resembling those of boa constrictors despite no close evolutionary relationship. The species epithet "capensis" directly references the Cape region of South Africa, the type locality where specimens were first scientifically described. For many years, this species was placed in the genus Lamprophis (meaning "shiny snake") and may still be found under the name Lamprophis capensis in older literature and some commercial contexts.

Cape House Snakes are frequently called simply "house snakes" in the pet trade, though this informal name applies to multiple Boaedon species. "Brown house snake" is another common name, though this more specifically refers to the closely related Boaedon fuliginosus from more northern African regions. The species complex has created some confusion in the pet trade, with animals from different geographic origins sometimes sold interchangeably. True Boaedon capensis originates from the southernmost portions of Africa, while related species occupy regions further north.

The common name "house snake" reflects these snakes' commensal relationship with humans throughout their native range. They frequently inhabit human structures—houses, barns, storage buildings—where they hunt rodents attracted to stored grain and food supplies. This synanthropic behavior makes them beneficial neighbors in rural African communities, providing natural pest control. Their tolerance of human proximity and dietary preferences for pest species likely contributed to their ease of captive adaptation and success as pet animals.

Cape House Snakes are small to medium-sized, slender-bodied constrictors typically reaching 2 to 4 feet in length at maturity, with females growing noticeably larger and more robust than males. Exceptional females occasionally approach 5 feet, while males rarely exceed 3 feet. Despite their modest length, these snakes possess muscular builds with well-developed constricting abilities used to subdue prey. Their proportions are elegant and streamlined, built for navigating tight spaces within buildings and rock crevices where they naturally hunt.

The most striking physical characteristic of Cape House Snakes is their smooth, highly glossy scales that create an exceptional iridescent sheen under proper lighting. Unlike keeled-scaled species with matte appearances, house snakes display mirror-like reflectivity that produces subtle rainbow highlights when light strikes their scales at certain angles. This iridescence is particularly pronounced immediately following shedding, when fresh scales are at peak condition. The visual effect creates an impression of quality and health that many keepers find exceptionally attractive.

Wild-type coloration typically consists of uniform brown, olive-brown, or grayish-brown dorsal coloration, occasionally with faint darker markings or vertebral striping that may be more pronounced in juveniles. The head often displays a distinctive pale stripe extending from the snout through the eye to the neck, creating an attractive facial pattern. Ventral surfaces are cream, white, or pale yellow, sometimes with scattered darker markings. Overall coloration provides excellent camouflage against natural substrates and building materials where they naturally occur.

Captive breeding has produced numerous color morphs expanding the palette beyond wild-type browns. Albino (amelanistic) morphs display striking orange, yellow, and white coloration lacking black pigment. "T-positive" albinos retain some melanin, producing warmer orange tones than "T-negative" pure albinos. Other morphs include hypomelanistic (reduced black pigment), patternless, striped, and various combination morphs. Selective breeding continues developing new variations, though morph diversity remains less extensive than in corn snakes or ball pythons.

The head is slightly distinct from the neck and somewhat flattened, typical of constrictors that pursue prey into confined spaces. Eyes are moderately large with round pupils positioned toward the front of the head, providing good binocular vision useful for accurately striking prey. Eye color is typically dark brown or black in wild-type individuals, though morphs may display red, pink, or orange iris coloration. The tongue is dark with lighter tips, flicked constantly during hunting and exploration.

Scale counts include 23-31 dorsal scale rows at midbody, all smooth (non-keeled). Ventral scales number 175-230, while subcaudal scales range from 47-75. Sexual dimorphism includes females' larger overall size, while males possess relatively longer tails with more prominent hemipenal bulges. Hatchlings emerge at 8-10 inches in length, displaying similar coloration to adults but often with more pronounced head markings and slightly less intense iridescence that develops fully as they mature.

Cape House Snakes are renowned throughout the reptile hobby for possessing some of the gentlest, most tractable temperaments of any snake species. Their docility is legendary—these snakes virtually never display defensive aggression, rarely bite even when stressed or startled, and typically accept handling immediately upon acquisition without requiring extensive acclimation periods. This exceptional temperament makes them arguably the most beginner-friendly snake species available, surpassing even corn snakes and ball pythons in terms of predictable gentleness.

Defensive behaviors in Cape House Snakes are minimal to nonexistent in most individuals. Unlike hognose snakes with their dramatic displays or water snakes with their aggressive defensiveness, house snakes simply don't react defensively to handling. When first picked up, most individuals briefly investigate their handler through tongue flicking before calmly settling into relaxed exploration. Stress indicators like rapid breathing, attempted escape, musking, or defensive posturing are remarkably rare even in newly acquired specimens.

Biting is extraordinarily uncommon in Cape House Snakes. Many experienced keepers report never being bitten by their house snakes despite years of regular handling. The rare bites that occur almost exclusively result from feeding responses—striking at hands carrying food scents—rather than defensive aggression. Even feeding response bites are gentle, causing minimal if any injury from their small teeth. Their reluctance to bite makes them exceptionally safe for beginners, children (with supervision), and educational programs.

Handling produces rapid relaxation in most individuals. Unlike ball pythons that may remain tightly balled during initial handling or corn snakes that may be slightly squirmy, Cape House Snakes typically settle quickly, draping over hands and arms while calmly investigating through continuous tongue flicking. They display curiosity rather than fear, exploring their handlers' hands, arms, and clothing without stress indicators. This immediate tractability distinguishes them from species requiring extensive socialization.

Activity patterns emphasize crepuscular and nocturnal behavior. During daylight hours, Cape House Snakes typically rest within hides or beneath substrate, emerging as light levels decrease in evening hours. They become notably active at dusk, exploring their enclosures, investigating water bowls, and displaying hunting behaviors. This activity timing means keepers typically observe their snakes during evening hours when most people are home from work or school—a convenient coincidence benefiting observation opportunities.

Feeding behavior in Cape House Snakes is exceptionally enthusiastic and reliable. They possess powerful prey drives, often striking immediately when food is presented and constricting vigorously despite prey items posing no actual threat. Their feeding responses are so consistent that they've earned a reputation as the easiest-feeding snake species in the hobby. Feeding refusals are remarkably rare except during normal pre-shed appetite suppression. This feeding reliability represents a major advantage for beginners worried about common feeding challenges in other species.

Social behavior is minimal—Cape House Snakes are solitary animals showing no social bonding or interaction needs. While they may tolerate conspecifics in sufficiently large enclosures without aggression, they derive no benefit from companionship and are best housed individually. Cohabitation risks include feeding competition, stress from proximity, and potential cannibalism during feeding responses when one snake mistakes another for prey. Individual housing eliminates these risks while matching their natural solitary lifestyle.

Constriction behavior is well-developed despite their small size. When capturing prey, Cape House Snakes strike rapidly, immediately coiling around prey items and applying constricting pressure. This behavior continues even with frozen-thawed prey presenting no actual danger—instinctive feeding behaviors persist regardless of prey condition. Their constriction is proportionally powerful for their size, effectively subduing appropriate prey items. Watching their hunting behaviors, even with pre-killed prey, provides fascinating insight into their natural predatory instincts.

Cape House Snakes thrive in simple, appropriately sized terrestrial enclosures emphasizing security and proper thermal gradients over elaborate decorations or complex environmental features. Adult specimens are comfortably housed in 20-gallon long tanks (30x12x12 inches), though many keepers provide 30-40 gallon enclosures for additional enrichment space and easier temperature gradient establishment. Their compact size and adaptable nature means they utilize modest accommodations efficiently, making them ideal for keepers with limited space.

Enclosure type flexibility is another advantage of keeping Cape House Snakes. Glass aquariums with secure screen tops work excellently, as do purpose-built reptile terrariums with front-opening doors. Plastic tub systems commonly used by breeders are equally appropriate, particularly for younger snakes or large collections. PVC enclosures offer superior heat retention and humidity control for keepers preferring that format. Cape House Snakes adapt to virtually any enclosure style provided security, temperature, and hiding requirements are met.

Enclosure security requires standard attention. Locking screen tops or weighted lids prevent escape, though Cape House Snakes are less determined escape artists than kingsnakes or corn snakes. They'll exploit obvious openings but don't actively seek escape routes with the persistence of some species. All access points should close securely, and screen clips or locks provide adequate security for most situations. Their moderate escape drive makes them less stressful for beginners worried about overnight escapes.

Substrate selection offers numerous appropriate options. Aspen shavings are highly popular for their absorbency, attractive appearance, and ease of spot-cleaning. Cypress mulch provides slightly better humidity retention for keepers preferring that aesthetic. Coconut husk products offer sustainable alternatives with good moisture characteristics. Paper-based substrates like newspaper or reptile-specific paper products simplify maintenance for quarantine or breeding situations. Substrate depth of 1-2 inches suffices for these primarily surface-dwelling snakes, though slightly deeper substrate allows minor burrowing behavior.

Thermal regulation is essential but straightforward for these adaptable snakes. Create a temperature gradient using under-tank heating pads, heat tape, or low-wattage ceramic heat emitters controlled by reliable thermostats. The warm end should maintain 82-85°F, with a basking surface temperature of 88-92°F. The cool end should remain at 75-78°F. Cape House Snakes tolerate temperature variations better than many species, but proper gradients optimize digestion, immune function, and overall health. Always use thermostats with all heating elements—unregulated heat sources can cause fatal burns. Monitor temperatures using digital thermometers at substrate level.

Hiding opportunities are important for security and stress reduction. Provide at least two hides—one at the warm end and one at the cool end—allowing thermoregulation while feeling protected. Cork bark halves, commercial reptile caves, inverted plastic containers with entry holes, or simple cardboard hide boxes all function effectively. Cape House Snakes utilize hides extensively during daylight hours, emerging primarily during evening activity periods. A humid hide containing moistened sphagnum moss assists shedding when needed, though their low humidity sensitivity means shed problems are rare.

Water should be constantly available in a clean, sturdy bowl. Cape House Snakes drink regularly and may occasionally soak, particularly during shed cycles. Bowl size should allow drinking and optional soaking without being so large it significantly raises enclosure humidity. Clean and refill water daily with dechlorinated water. Position the water bowl on the cool end to minimize evaporation that could raise humidity beyond preferred levels.

Lighting needs are minimal. Cape House Snakes don't require UVB supplementation when fed whole prey items, though some keepers provide low-level UVB believing it offers behavioral benefits. At minimum, maintain regular photoperiods: 12-14 hours light in summer, 8-10 hours in winter, transitioning gradually between seasons. Ambient room lighting often suffices, or use low-wattage LED bulbs that don't generate significant heat. Avoid excessively bright lighting that may discourage daytime basking.

Environmental enrichment enhances quality of life for these intelligent snakes. Include varied terrain with hiding spots at different thermal zones, climbing branches (house snakes are capable climbers though primarily terrestrial), artificial plants providing visual barriers and cover, and occasionally rearranged décor creating novel exploration opportunities. While they adapt well to minimalist setups, enriched environments encourage natural behaviors and provide more interesting observation opportunities for keepers.

Maintenance requirements are minimal compared to many reptile species. Daily tasks include visual health checks, water bowl refreshment, and spot-cleaning of waste. Cape House Snakes typically designate specific bathroom areas, simplifying spot-cleaning. Complete substrate changes occur every 4-8 weeks depending on substrate type and cleanliness. Their relatively clean habits, modest size, and infrequent defecation make maintenance straightforward—a significant advantage for busy keepers.

Cape House Snakes are legendary among reptile keepers for their exceptional feeding responses and virtually problem-free dietary management. These voracious predators eagerly accept appropriately sized frozen-thawed rodents with enthusiasm that makes feeding one of the most enjoyable aspects of their care. Unlike many species requiring scenting, braining, or other feeding tricks, Cape House Snakes typically strike immediately when presented with food, making them ideal for beginners anxious about common feeding challenges in other snake species.

Appropriate prey consists of frozen-thawed mice sized to the snake's girth—prey items should be roughly equal to or slightly smaller than the snake's body at its widest point. Hatchlings start with pinkie mice, graduating through fuzzy mice as juveniles, then hopper and adult mice as they mature. Most adult females accept adult mice comfortably, while smaller males may prefer small or medium adult mice. Some keepers offer occasional variety through African soft-furred rats (ASFs), chicks, or appropriately sized rats, though mice form the practical dietary staple for most captive house snakes.

Feeding frequency follows standard colubrid schedules: hatchlings every 5-7 days to support rapid growth, juveniles every 6-8 days, and adults every 7-10 days. Cape House Snakes have efficient metabolisms and shouldn't be overfed despite their enthusiastic acceptance of food. Obesity is possible with excessive feeding, manifesting as visible fat deposits and skin folding. Monitor body condition and adjust feeding frequency accordingly—well-fed house snakes should appear smoothly rounded without visible ribs or spine, nor excessive fat bulges.

Feeding responses in Cape House Snakes are remarkably strong and reliable. Most individuals strike immediately when prey is presented, coiling and constricting vigorously even though frozen-thawed prey poses no actual threat. Their enthusiasm can make feeding exciting to observe—these snakes display genuine predatory behaviors rather than the hesitant acceptance some species show. This strong prey drive is considered one of their most desirable characteristics, eliminating the feeding anxiety many keepers experience with pickier species.

Feeding protocols are straightforward. Thaw frozen prey completely by submerging sealed bags in warm water for 15-30 minutes depending on size—never microwave, which creates dangerous hot spots. Present prey using 10-12 inch feeding tongs to avoid accidental bites during enthusiastic strikes. Feed snakes in their enclosures rather than transferring to separate containers, which causes unnecessary stress. Approach from the side rather than directly overhead, mimicking natural prey encounters. Most Cape House Snakes require no warming, scenting, or movement stimulation—simply presenting prey triggers immediate feeding responses.

Feeding refusals are extraordinarily rare in Cape House Snakes, representing one of their most significant advantages for beginners. The most common cause of feeding refusal is pre-shed appetite suppression, typically occurring 5-7 days before shedding when the snake's vision is impaired. Other occasional causes include recent acquisition stress (usually resolving within 1-2 weeks), excessively large or small prey items, incorrect temperatures, and illness. Extended refusals lasting more than 3-4 weeks are unusual and warrant veterinary consultation, though healthy house snakes can safely fast for several weeks without concern.

Multiple prey items per feeding are sometimes offered by keepers seeking faster growth or maintaining breeding females. This practice is acceptable occasionally but shouldn't be routine, as it can lead to obesity and digestive strain. A single appropriately sized prey item provides adequate nutrition for normal maintenance. Breeding females benefit from slightly increased feeding during follicle development and post-laying recovery, potentially including occasional double feedings or larger prey items.

Post-feeding handling restrictions are important: avoid handling for 48-72 hours after feeding to prevent regurgitation. Cape House Snakes digest relatively efficiently, typically processing meals within 3-4 days at proper temperatures. They often remain in warm-end hides during active digestion, emerging once processing is complete. Regurgitation can cause esophageal damage, establish problematic feeding refusal patterns, and waste nutritional resources. Respecting post-feeding rest periods ensures optimal digestive health.

Supplementation is unnecessary when feeding whole prey items, which provide complete, balanced nutrition including bones, organs, and muscle tissue. Never dust prey with calcium or vitamin supplements unless specifically directed by a reptile veterinarian addressing documented deficiencies. Over-supplementation can cause health problems as severe as deficiencies. Trust that whole prey nutrition—the diet that has sustained wild snake populations for millions of years—provides everything captive snakes need.

Cape House Snakes are exceptionally hardy, resilient snakes with robust constitutions well-suited to captive life. Decades of captive breeding have produced animals adapted to captive conditions, typically healthier and more problem-free than many other species. Most health issues in captive Cape House Snakes stem from environmental problems—incorrect temperatures, excessive humidity, unsanitary conditions, or feeding errors—rather than inherent species vulnerabilities. Their tolerance of varied conditions makes them forgiving of minor husbandry mistakes that might cause problems in more sensitive species. Establishing relationships with reptile-experienced veterinarians remains valuable for annual checkups and emergency situations, though Cape House Snakes generally require veterinary intervention far less frequently than many pet species.

With appropriate husbandry emphasizing proper temperatures, moderate humidity, clean conditions, and quality nutrition, Cape House Snakes consistently thrive in captivity for 15-20 years or longer. Their exceptional hardiness and tolerance of varied conditions make them among the most forgiving snake species for beginners learning husbandry skills. Most health problems are entirely preventable through basic environmental management and common-sense care. Veterinary needs are typically minimal for well-maintained specimens, though establishing relationships with reptile-experienced veterinarians ensures access to qualified care when needed.

Handling Cape House Snakes is straightforward, enjoyable, and rewarding given their exceptional docility and immediate acceptance of human interaction. These snakes require minimal acclimation before handling begins—unlike species needing weeks of gradual socialization, most Cape House Snakes accept handling calmly from their first day in a new home. This immediate tractability makes them perfect for beginners anxious about establishing handling relationships with their first snake.

New acquisitions can typically be handled within 3-5 days of arrival, after allowing brief settling time and successful feeding. Some experienced keepers handle Cape House Snakes within 24 hours without problems, though allowing at least a few days reduces even minimal stress. Initial handling sessions can last 10-15 minutes, longer than recommended for more defensive species, as Cape House Snakes rarely display stress during handling. Watch for any signs of discomfort and adjust accordingly, though most individuals remain calm throughout.

Proper handling technique involves slow, deliberate movements and continuous body support. Approach the snake from the side rather than directly overhead—overhead approaches can trigger startle responses even in docile species. Gently scoop the snake from below, supporting its body weight along its length. Cape House Snakes typically settle quickly, investigating hands through tongue flicking before relaxing into calm exploration. They rarely squirm excessively or attempt escape, instead moving slowly and deliberately between hands.

Biting is extraordinarily rare during handling. Many keepers report never being bitten by their Cape House Snakes despite years of regular interaction. The rare bites that occur almost exclusively result from feeding responses triggered by food scent on hands rather than defensive aggression. Wash hands thoroughly before handling if you've recently handled prey items. Even accidental feeding bites are gentle given their small teeth and cause minimal injury—these snakes pose essentially no physical danger to handlers.

Handling frequency can be relatively high given their tolerance. Daily handling for 15-30 minutes is acceptable for well-established specimens, though 3-4 times weekly for 20-30 minutes represents a reasonable routine for most keepers. Cape House Snakes don't require handling for socialization like dogs or cats, but regular interaction maintains tractability and allows health monitoring. They neither seek nor avoid handling, simply accepting it as a neutral experience.

Stress indicators are rare but worth recognizing: rapid tongue flicking, attempted escape, defensive posturing, or musking indicate discomfort requiring handling cessation. However, these behaviors are so uncommon in Cape House Snakes that many keepers never observe them. Most individuals display only calm exploration during handling, with no observable stress responses regardless of handling duration or frequency.

Post-feeding handling restrictions are important: avoid handling for 48-72 hours after feeding to prevent regurgitation. Cape House Snakes digest efficiently but require undisturbed rest during the process. Mark feeding dates on calendars to track appropriate handling windows. Pre-shed periods don't necessarily require handling cessation, though slightly reduced handling during the opaque-eye phase (5-7 days before shedding) respects their temporary visual impairment.

Children and Cape House Snakes make excellent partnerships with appropriate supervision. Their small size, exceptional docility, reluctance to bite, and gentle movements make them ideal for teaching children responsible reptile handling. Children 8+ years can typically handle Cape House Snakes independently after instruction, while younger children benefit from close supervision ensuring both child and snake safety. Their predictable temperament eliminates concerns about defensive reactions that might frighten children.

Educational settings benefit tremendously from Cape House Snakes' handling characteristics. Their tolerance of multiple handlers, calm demeanor in unfamiliar environments, and visual appeal make them outstanding ambassador animals for school presentations, nature center programs, and educational outreach. They tolerate the stress of travel and handling by multiple people better than most species, maintaining calm dispositions that allow educational messages to focus on snake biology rather than defensive behaviors.

Cape House Snakes rank among the most suitable pet snakes for absolute beginners, arguably surpassing even corn snakes and ball pythons in terms of overall ease of care. Their combination of exceptional docility, foolproof feeding responses, simple husbandry requirements, and forgiving nature creates an ideal first snake experience with minimal anxiety and maximum success probability. They're equally appropriate for experienced keepers appreciating their reliable temperaments, compact size, and low-maintenance care requirements.

Experience requirements are truly beginner-level—Cape House Snakes are specifically recommended as first snakes for individuals with zero prior reptile experience. Their forgiving nature tolerates minor husbandry mistakes while keepers develop skills. Feeding challenges that frustrate beginners with other species are virtually nonexistent. Defensive behaviors that intimidate novice handlers don't occur. Complete beginners can realistically expect success with Cape House Snakes provided they research basic requirements and prepare appropriate enclosures before acquisition.

Financial investment is modest. Normal wild-type Cape House Snakes cost $50-$100, while morphs (albino, hypomelanistic, etc.) range $100-$300 depending on rarity. Initial setup costs for enclosure, heating equipment, thermostat, thermometers, substrate, hides, and décor run $150-$300. Ongoing monthly expenses for frozen mice, substrate replacement, and electricity average $15-$25. Veterinary needs are typically minimal—annual wellness exams ($75-$150) are optional but recommended, with emergency care rarely needed for well-maintained specimens. Overall costs compare favorably to virtually any pet species.

Time commitment is minimal, making Cape House Snakes ideal for busy individuals, students, and families with demanding schedules. Daily care requires 5-10 minutes for visual health checks, water changes, and spot-cleaning. Weekly feeding takes 10-15 minutes. Complete enclosure cleaning requires 30-45 minutes monthly. Optional handling sessions add 15-30 minutes as often as desired. This modest time investment compares extremely favorably to traditional pets—Cape House Snakes provide rewarding companionship without demanding daily walks, constant attention, or complex care routines.

Family suitability is excellent. Their small size, exceptional gentleness, reluctance to bite, and simple care make them outstanding family pets and educational animals for households with children. Older children (8+ years) can participate meaningfully in care responsibilities including feeding and handling, learning animal husbandry skills and responsibility. Young children require supervision during handling but face minimal risk from these gentle snakes. Cape House Snakes provide engaging pet experiences without the feeding, space, or care demands of larger snake species.

Space requirements favor Cape House Snakes for apartment dwellers, dorm residents, and anyone with limited room for pet housing. A 20-30 gallon enclosure accommodates adults comfortably, occupying minimal floor space while providing complete habitat needs. Their quiet, odor-free nature makes them ideal for situations where noise or smell would be problematic. Landlord restrictions on pets may still apply—verify policies before acquisition—but Cape House Snakes' small size and containment simplicity make approval more likely than for larger or more demanding species.

Captive-bred availability is excellent. Multiple breeders produce Cape House Snakes regularly, ensuring healthy captive-bred specimens are readily available without supporting wild collection. Virtually all pet trade animals are captive-bred, often multiple generations removed from wild ancestors. This captive breeding heritage produces snakes well-adapted to captive conditions with superior feeding responses, temperaments, and overall health compared to wild-caught imports. Always purchase from reputable breeders or retailers who can verify captive-bred origin.

Legal considerations are straightforward in most jurisdictions. Cape House Snakes are non-venomous, small, and pose no public safety concerns, resulting in minimal regulatory restrictions. Most states and localities permit ownership without permits. However, some municipalities restrict all snake keeping regardless of species, and rental properties often prohibit reptiles in lease agreements. Verify local regulations and landlord policies before acquisition. Interstate transport is generally unrestricted for captive-bred specimens.

Realistic expectations ensure satisfaction. Cape House Snakes are display and handling animals providing companionship through observation and interaction rather than emotional bonding. They don't display affection, seek attention, or form attachments like mammals. Their value lies in their beauty, fascinating natural behaviors, feeding responses, and the satisfying accomplishment of maintaining a healthy exotic animal. Prospective keepers seeking emotionally responsive pets should consider other species. Those appreciating reptilian aesthetics, natural history, and low-maintenance exotic companionship will find Cape House Snakes exceptionally rewarding.

Comparison to other beginner species favors Cape House Snakes in several categories. Compared to corn snakes, they're generally calmer and less squirmy during handling. Compared to ball pythons, they're dramatically more reliable feeders and less humidity-sensitive. Compared to kingsnakes, they're gentler and less prone to defensive musking. Their primary limitation compared to these popular species is less morph diversity, though this continues expanding through ongoing captive breeding efforts. For keepers prioritizing ease, reliability, and stress-free experiences, Cape House Snakes arguably represent the single best choice among commonly available species.